Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that destroys higher brain structures, such as those involved in memory and cognition. The disease leads to deficits in cognitive function and declines in memory, learning, language, and in the ability to perform intentional and purposeful movements. AD is also accompanied by concomitant behavioral, emotional, interpersonal, and social deterioration. These cognitive and behavioral deficits render living difficult (Burns et al., 2002). Late-stage AD patients are often unable to speak, comprehend language, and handle their own basic personal care, eventually requiring full-time care and supervision, and are often dependent on family members and nursing homes. AD is the leading cause of senile dementia, and is predicted to increase in prevalence as the proportion of elderly persons in the population grows. The total number of persons with AD is predicted to increase at least threefold just between 2000 and 2050, rendering AD a world-wide public health problem (Sloane et al., 2002). Clinical management of AD remains largely supportive. That is, patients are given treatments aimed at prevention, control, or relief of complications and side effects from AD, and to improve their comfort and quality of life. There is still an unmet need for treatments that directly target the disease process and have disease-modifying effects.
AD is histologically characterized by the presence of extraneuronal plaques and intracellular and extracellular neurofibrillary tangles in the brain. Plaques are composed mainly of β amyloid (Aβ), whereas tangles comprise pathological forms of tau, such as pathological tau conformers and their aggregates. The relationship between plaques and tangles and the disease process remains unclear, although studies suggest a link between amyloid and tau pathogenesis (Hardy et al., 1998; Oddo et al., 2004; Rapoport et al., 2002; Roberson, et al., 2007; Shipton et al., 2011). A central role for Aβ in AD pathology was initially proposed in a hypothesis called the “Aβ cascade,” wherein Aβ deposition is followed by tau phosphorylation and tangle formation, and then neuronal death (Hardy and Allsop, 1991; Hardy and Selkoe, 2002; for a review see, Walsh and Selkoe, 2004; also see Seabrook et al. 2007). Accordingly, initial therapeutic approaches for AD focused primarily on targeting Aβ. However, there is a documented lack of correlation between the extent of brain Aβ pathology in AD patients and clinical progression of the disease (Braak and Braak, 1991). In addition, asymptomatic individuals have shown extensive, often diffuse, amyloid deposition at autopsy (Braak and Braak, 1991), and at least in early-stage AD, neuronal loss and amyloid deposition occur in different regions of the brain (Carter and Lippa, 2001). Therefore targeting AR alone cannot suffice to alter the disease process in any or all patients. Nevertheless, the most advanced disease-targeting therapies undergoing clinical trials in AD patients remain those aimed at the production and clearance of Aβ. These therapies include passive immunotherapies, e.g., BAPINEUZUMAB, SOLANEUZUMAB, and PONEZUMAB, as well as the small molecule gamma-secretase inhibitor SEMAGACESTAT (for review see Citron et al., 2010).
A recognized role for tau in AD pathology has been demonstrated in numerous studies. For example, Braak showed that the closest correlate for AD neurodegeneration was the presence of tau tangles, and not of amyloid plaques (Braak and Braak, 1991). In another study, Aβ neurotoxicity in cultured neurons appeared to depend on tau (Rapoport et al., 2002). Recently, reducing endogenous tau prevented behavioral deficits in transgenic mice that expressed the human amyloid precursor protein, without altering their high Aβ levels (Roberson et al., 2007). Tau reduction also protected both transgenic and nontransgenic mice against excitotoxicity. Id. Santacruz et al. demonstrated that a reduction in the amount of tau restored memory function in a model of tauopathy (Santacruz et al., 2005). Thus, therapies aimed at reducing tau can represent an effective strategy for treating AD and other tau-related disease conditions.
Tau belongs to a family of intrinsically disordered proteins, characterized by the absence of a rigid three-dimensional structure in their physiological environment (Zilka et al., 2008) However, tau truncation and hyperphosphorylation can cause pathological transformations from an intrinsically disordered state to multiple soluble and insoluble misdisordered structures, including paired helical filaments (PHFs) and other aggregates (Wischik et al., 1988a; Wischik et al., 1988b; Novak et al., 1993; Skrabana et al., 2006; Zilka et al., 2008; Kovacech et al., 2010). These structural changes lead to a toxic gain of function, to a loss of physiological function of the native protein, or both (Zilka et al., 2008; Kovacech et al., 2010).
Tau's physiological function is in mediating the assembly of tubulin monomers into microtubules that constitute the neuronal microtubules network (Buee et al., 2000). Tau binds to microtubules through repetitive regions located in the C-terminal portion of the protein. Id. These repeat domains (R1-R4), are not identical to each other, but comprise highly conserved 31-32 amino acids (Taniguchi et al., 2005b). In the human brain, there are six unique isoforms of tau, which differ from each other in the presence or absence of certain amino acids in the N-terminal portion of tau, in combination with either three (R1, R3, and R4) or four (R1-R4) repeat domains, at the C-terminal end of the protein. See also FIG. 1, which shows the six human isoforms (2N4R, 1N4R, 2N3R, 0N4R, 1N3R, and 0N3R). It has been proposed that the most potent part of tau to induce microtubule polymerization is the 274-KVQIINKK-281 region (SEQ ID NO: 113), overlapping R1-R2. Id. In addition, tau's pathological and physiological functions appear to be influenced by the specific structural conformation, and the intrinsically disordered structure, adopted by the full length protein isoforms and their fragments. For example, Kontsekova et al. described a conformational region (encompassing residues 297-IKHVPGGGSVQIVYKPVDLSKVTSKCGSL-325 (SEQ ID NO: 114)) within certain truncated tau molecules which had a significant relationship to the function of those truncated tau molecules on microtubule assembly (WO 2004/007547).
In addition to their physiological role, tau repeats are believed to participate in the formation of pathological tau aggregates and other structures. Thus, there is a need for tau-targeted therapeutic and diagnostic approaches that are capable of discriminating between physiological and pathological repeat-mediated activities. For example, the pronase resistant core of pathological paired helical filaments (PHFs) consists of the microtubule binding regions of 3- and 4-repeat tau isoforms (Jakes et al., 1991; Wischik, et al. 1988a; Wischik, et al. 1988b). Further, Novak et al. showed that the protease resistant core of the PHFs, which is 93-95 amino acids long, was restricted to three tandem repeats (Novak et al., 1993). Von Bergen et al. determined a minimal-tau peptide/interaction motif (306-VQIVYK-311; SEQ ID NO: 115), as well as a second site on tau (275-VQIINK-280) (SEQ ID NO: 116), which form beta-sheets and are described as potentially responsible for initiating the formation of PHFs, a pathological tau aggregate (Von Bergen et al., 2000; EP 1214598; WO 2001/18546). See FIG. 2 for a functional map of tau. Consequently, current strategies aim at generating anti-aggregating drugs that do not disrupt tau's intracellular role in microtubule stabilization.
Moreover, while under physiological circumstances tau is considered an intracellular cytoplasmic protein, intracellular tau can be released into the extracellular space and contribute to neurodegeneration (Gómez-Ramos et al., 2006). Indeed, neuronal loss has been linked to the topographic distribution of neurofibrillary tangles (made up of tau protein) in AD brains (West et al., 1994; Gomez-Isla et al., 1996, 1997). Further, the levels of total tau and phosphorylated tau are increased in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of patients with AD (Hampel et al., 2010), and extracellular tau has been described as “ghost tangles” in the brain (Frost and Diamond, 2009), indicating that intracellular tau is released into extracellular space. In addition, extracellular tau aggregates can enter cells and stimulate fibrillization of intracellular tau, further seeding tau monomer for production of pathological tau aggregates (Frost et al., 2009). Such studies have highlighted that extracellular, insoluble tau could act as a transmissible agent to spread tau pathology throughout the brain in a prion-like fashion (Frost et al., 2009; Frost and Diamond, 2009). Clearance of extracellular tau tangles can reduce tau-associated extracellular and intracellular pathology. See, e.g., Asuni et al., 2007. Therefore, there is a need for treatments capable of decreasing extracellular tau, either by impeding its formation, promoting its clearance, or both, as well as for treatments that decrease intracellular disease tau.
All in all, although tau appears to play a pathological role in the clinical manifestation of AD, the development of drugs that work against tau has been slow, in part due to tau's importance in physiologic microtubule dynamics and to its complex biology (Dickey and Petrucelli, 2006). However, an increased understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying the pathological transformations of tau has opened up the possibility of specifically targeting pathological modifications of tau for therapeutic purposes. As a result, a number of therapeutic approaches that directly or indirectly target the tau cascade have emerged (for review articles, see, e.g. Dickey and Petrucelli, 2006; Schneider and Mandelkow, 2008; Zilka et al., 2008), including compounds that prevent or reverse tau aggregation (Wischik et al., 1996; Necula et al. 2005; Pickhardt et al., 2005; Taniguchi et al., 2005a; Larbig et al., 2007) small-molecule type drugs that inhibit tau kinases or activate tau phosphatases (Iqbal and Grundke-Iqbal, 2004; Noble et al., 2005; Iqbal and Grundke-Iqbal, 2007), microtubule stabilizing drugs (Zhang et al., 2005), drugs that facilitate the proteolytic degradation of misfolded tau proteins (Dickey et al., 2005, Dickey et al. 2006; Dickey and Petrucelli, 2006), and immunosuppresive drugs (Zilka et al., 2008), as well as immunotherapeutic strategies including active and passive immunization (Schneider and Mandelkow et al., 2008; Zilka et al., 2008: Tabira, T. Immunization Therapy for Alzheimer disease: A Comprehensive Review of Active Immunization Strategies. Tohoku J. Exp. Med., 220: 95-106 (2010)).
More generally, novel monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) have been entering clinical studies at a rate of over 40 per year since 2007. At the end of 2010, at least 25 mAbs and five Fc fusion proteins were in Phase 2/3 or Phase 3 clinical studies in the US (Reichert, 2011). This trend demonstrates that passive immunotherapy is a growing approach in the treatment of human disorders, including AD. See, e.g., Citron et al., 2010. In fact, although AD treatments face the hurdle of overcoming the blood-brain-barrier (BBB), a growing number of pre-clinical and clinical studies report that antibody-mediated therapies can clear AD aggregates from the brain, and propose multiple mechanisms of action, such as (i) antibody uptake into the brain via an altered BBB permeability in AD, or BBB leakage; (ii) antibodies working as “peripheral sinks” for soluble plaque-forming amyloid species; (iii) entrance of antibody-secreting cells from the periphery into the brain, delivering antibodies locally; and (iv) transport of IgG within and across cells. See, e.g., Citron et al., 2010, and Asuni et al., 2007, for review. Accordingly, therapeutic antibodies targeting disease forms of tau represent a prospective approach for treatment and/or diagnosis of AD and other tauopathies (WO 2004/007547, US2008/0050383).
One of the immunotherapy approaches to target tau pathology is based on the notion that anti-tau antibodies could prevent tau aggregation, clear tau aggregates, or both. Although studies have described antibodies that bind to tau sequences, and some of those antibodies reportedly interfere with tau aggregation and clearance (Asuni et al., 2007), no monoclonal anti-tau antibody is yet reportedly undergoing in vivo pre-clinical or clinical trials in AD. Indeed, one mAb was predicted to have three binding sites within murine tau's microtubule-binding domain (namely, at R3, R4, and possibly R1), but it did not block microtubule binding. (Dingus et al., 1991). Dingus did not describe a role for this antibody on tau aggregation and thus, there is no reason to believe that the Dingus will block tau aggregation. In other reports, mAbs were generated that distinguish tau isoforms, but again there is no suggestion that these will have any effect on tau aggregation (DeSilva et al., 2003; Ueno et al., 2007). Taniguchi et al. demonstrated that certain anti-tau mAbs against R1 or R2, inhibited tau aggregation into PHFs in vitro, while promoting tau-induced tubulin assembly (Taniguchi et al., 2005b). Taniguchi's RTA-1 and RTA-2 antibodies bound specifically to R1 and R2, respectively. Neither antibody bound more than one tau repeat and none was reportedly tested for in vivo effects on either tau aggregation or clearance. Despite the existence of at least three anti-amyloid antibodies in clinical trials for passive immunization-based therapy of AD (i.e., one in which antibodies are administered to the patient), no clinical testing reports of passive, tau-based immunotherapies for AD are yet available.
An active immunization approach (i.e., one in which the patient's body itself generates immunity against the target) was found to be effective in clearing Aβ deposits and reversing neuropathological lesions in several APP-transgenic mouse studies of AD (see, e.g. Schenk et al., 1999; Janus et al., 2000; Morgan et al., 2000; Sigurdsson et al., 2001). Recently, active immunotherapy with a phosphorylated tau epitope (Tau 379-408 [P-Ser 396, 404]) reduced the extent of aggregated tau in the brain and slowed the progression of the behavioral phenotype in mouse models of tau tangle pathology (Asuni et al., 2007; Boutajangout et al. 2010; US2008/0050383; US/2010/00316564). Treated animals produced anti-tau antibodies, which were detected in the brain and colocalized with antibodies that recognized pathological tau (Asuni et al., 2007). This immunotherapeutic approach was substantially more effective in the early stages of functional impairments in the animals (5 months) than at later stages (8 months), suggesting that clearance of early-stage pathological tau can be of therapeutic benefit (Asuni et al., 2007; Zilka et al., 2008). Indeed, there is awareness that not all tau is susceptible or perhaps even suitable for disruption and clearance. Some have suggested that disrupting tau aggregates could increase the abundance of toxic intermediate species, while others have suggested that detectable tau aggregates are not necessarily toxic and can even play a protective role (Lee et al., 2005). Thus, although immunotherapeutic approaches to target tau have shown pre-clinical promise, there is still a need for therapeutics that specifically target early, aberrant forms of tau whose elimination produces improved, lasting benefits. Nevertheless, there is still also a need to identify those tau species that are suitable targets for immunotherapy.
To this end, another consideration for developing mAbs against tau is the identification and characterization of the various structural forms of tau (physiological, early disease, late disease) and the stages of tau pathology that are targeted. Oddo et al. observed that while Aβ immunotherapy cleared Aβ plaques and early tau pathology in a transgenic mouse model of AD, mature tau aggregates remained intact (Oddo et al., 2004). Similarly, a genetic (not immunotherapeutic) reduction of tau expression in a P301L tau model of tauopathy improved memory, even though neurofibrillary tangles continued to accumulate (Santacruz et al., 2005).
Notwithstanding its prevalence, AD remains the largest unmet medical need in neurology (Citron, 2010). The most prevalent medical approach is to provide symptomatic therapy, which is not efficacious even after several years of treatment. New therapeutic approaches and strategies for AD need to go beyond the treatment of symptoms to prevent cognitive decline and counteract the fundamental pathological processes of the disease. In particular, there is a need for the development of molecules that either alone or in combination with other AD-targeted drugs interfere with at least some of the earliest stages of the disease. Such molecules would provide new, advantageous options in the early diagnosis (which could itself improve treatment outcomes), prevention, and treatment of AD.